Ethical issues of Chinas one-child policy

Ethical issues of Chinas one-child policy The Chinese ideal of a family follows the Confucian belief that the family should be big and complex. The father is to have as many sons as possible so that the son can fulfill his obligations to the father and their lineage  [1]  . The family is very important for the Chinese that they even coined the term familism which is the basis of a kind of society distinctive from any other kind in the world  [2]  . This means that whatever the members of the family are doing should be only for the benefit of their family. Because of familism, a Chinese couple feels compelled to have at least one male child. The Chinese believe that having a son will benefit them in many ways and one of these is to ensure that their family line would be continued  [3]  . The family in the Confucian view stresses the significance of hierarchy. Confucius also said that in a relationship, one should command and the other should obey. It is now known that the one who commands is the man or the elder, while the one who obeys is the woman or the younger person. The Chinese family is very paternalistic in a sense that it favors the men of the family more than the women  [4]  . Unlike in the West, children in China were not as treasured by their parents. They were more of necessities for the families especially in the rural areas, so that they could help their parents with work in the fields. Sons were especially valued because of their ability to provide for their parents and to carry on their family name, something that the women can never be capable of doing  [5]  . The men are also the only ones who have direct access to Heaven and they can perform rituals for their ancestors. The one who was in charge of the rituals is called the descent-line heir or the tsung-tzu  [6]  . For the Chinese, having a daughter would not be beneficial to them in any way because daughters would eventually leave them to join her husbands family. She would worship their ancestors and serve his family. Having a son would be an assurance to a family; that the son would care for his parents and stay with them even after he gets married  [7]  . The men of the family would also inherit the property that is left to them, and there is no way that a woman would be allowed to become heir to what has been left by the ancestors. An example of this would be the opposition of Chu Hsi, one of the most influential leaders of the Learning Way Movement, in his Family Rituals that a daughter cannot inherit her parents estate even when she had no (more) brothers. A woman, without brothers, inheriting the property of her parents was a Sung practice, but Chu Hsi emphasized that the males should be the ones inheriting the properties because if it were women, then such property would be obtained inappropriately'  [8]  . Everyone knows about how China is becoming more developed and as a result, the population of China has been growing rapidly. China had to do something about the population growth because the government was not able to meet the needs of the citizens anymore. To add to that, death rates were also declining. The government had different programs to prolong a couple from having a child such as encouraging them to get married late. This policy was implemented to answer the problems of overpopulation. Couples who abided by the policy would receive incentives, while those who decide to have more than one child would have to pay the sanctions  [9]  . Chinas one child policy was launched in the year 1979 by former Premier Deng Xiao Ping  [10]  . The main purpose of this policy is to stop the rapid population growth of the country that was clearly evident during the year 1949, when the population was nearly half a billion, the same time when the Chinese Communist Party was establishing itself and thought that this concern would hinder development  [11]  . The policy was not supposed to be permanent but because it was successful, they decided to continue implementing it. It was also not applied to all places in China. Places that do not practice the policy are Macau, Hong Kong and Taiwan, and in total only about 40% of the Chinese population practice the one-child policy  [12]  . The policy itself is not fully unreasonable since it had a practical purpose of controlling the population growth which was certainly necessary at that moment. The only time it gets out of hand is when the Chinese norm of favoring sons enters th e picture. The fact that a family has to have only one child is absurd. How can the government of China expect to control millions of families in the country? Is this even possible? In the urban areas, people found it difficult to resist this policy because of their social and economic conditions as well as the strict ruling of their leaders during that time. However, this is not the case in rural areas wherein active resistance could be seen everywhere. This is because of their childrens contribution to the typical Chinese agricultural family and for their role in preserving the family line. Because of the unfairness of this policy, a lot of people resisted in three forms: first was when the targets confronted the implementers of the policy; second was the escape from the policy by either deceiving rural cadres or colluding with sympathetic ones; third was to appear to be complying with what the state wanted but defying them at the same time. This means that the state succeeds when the couple would obey the states policy of having only one child (even if they want more), but the same couple would reveal the influence of a counter-discourse that challenges the s tates ideological claim to dominate child-bearing when they practice female infanticide. Couples would then resort to ultrasound technology, wherein a rural or urban couple can engineer the sex of their baby  [13]  . The problem of population growth can be seen mostly in rural areas since 80 per cent of Chinas population is rural and 87.2 per cent of births occur there. The government tried to reason out with the peasants regarding the change in family size but they were not successful in changing their minds. By the year 1970, incentives and penalties were introduced as part of the two-child policy campaign. These were even highlighted during 1979, when the one-child policy was finally launched  [14]  . Why the Chinese peasants preferred to have a large family is due to economic reasons. They felt that having a large family would bring more advantages for them, as compared to having only one child. The advantage would be that the family would receive an allocation of grain distributed on a per capita basis. The same goes for the allocation of land that is why people in the rural areas can expand their homes when they expand their families  [15]  . Sometimes, these children would help their parents by gathering materials related to the maintaining of the land such as water and fuel. They would also feed the animals and weed private plots. These tasks could be done even by children, thus it helps the parents prepare for the more rigorous chores. Their children are also the only large-scale investments of the peasants because sons join the work force and they eventually have to provide for their families  [16]  . The preference for sons is also evident in the rural areas because they continue their family line, whereas most of the women get married outside their village, live with their in-laws and join their labor force. This preference is also reflected in a survey conducted during the year 1981. The participants are those couples who had a second child. 42.61 per cent of the 1000 participants had one son and 57.39 per cent had a daughter. When they were asked why they had another child, 50.5 per cent said that they wanted a boy and only 11.4 per cent said that they wanted a girl. This clearly indicates that majority of the respondents prefer a son over a daughter  [17]  . Because they had to, the people from the rural areas used different methods to postpone the creation of children. Some relied on the low cost methods of contraception such as IUD and the second method is sterilization. However, those with only one child have a hard time using this method because they would consider having a second child in replacement of the first one just in case the first one dies or becomes disabled. They do not take pills that much because it is more expensive and supply could be a problem for them. In some rural areas, particularly in Sichuan, vasectomy was used. Both men and women had more complaints regarding the side-effects of this method because the men claimed to be losing their strength. However, this method became very effective because Sichuan was most successful in reducing its birth rate. There was also induced abortion, which was originally just a back up method and was not really meant to be an independent option for contraception  [18]  . Despite the resistance, people still follow because there would be incentives and penalties enforced just to make sure that no one will go against the policy. Among the many incentives are a nutrition allowance, a full adult grain ration and free medical, educational and kindergarten facilities for the child. An example of the penalties on the other hand is the deduction of the couples income by 20 per cent from the time the second pregnancy is discovered but this 20 per cent will be returned to them if they had the child aborted. There are times when a couple is allowed to have a second child. Among these are if the first child suffers from a disability that would hinder him from working or if both are overseas Chinese who have just returned from another country  [19]  . The policy was more successful in the urban areas than in the rural areas. This could be due to the aim of the government that 95 per cent of the married couples in the cities and 90 per cent in the countryside will have only one child so that by the end of the century, China could limit their population to about 1.2 billion  [20]  . As early as 1955, family planning was being enforced in the urban areas of China  [21]  . Chen Da, a pioneering demographer, emphasized that people who received education overseas would more likely have less children because they have a background on birth control  [22]  . The people from the urban areas were more open and accepting of the one-child policy because for one, there were efforts to raise the status of the women by letting them enter into the labor force. Child bearing and rearing are not the only things that a woman is bound to do with all the work that she has  [23]  . The Chinese from urban areas also see children as more of an economic liability because it requires a lot of effort, attention and resources (like money) to raise them but these children contribute little to the lives of their parents  [24]  . Different families have various practices or methods to get rid of a daughter. One of these is female infanticide or the intentional killing of baby girls  [25]  . The couple will resort to female infanticide to try their luck again hoping that they would get a boy the second time around (or kill the girl when the mother gets pregnant with a boy)  [26]  just so they could comply with the policy that was being implemented  [27]  . There are also hospitals in China that have contraceptive technical guidance institutes. These institutes have lower level workers who are trained in the four operations which are tubectomy, vasectomy, insertion and removal of the IUD, and induced abortion  [28]  . IUD and sterilization are widely used in China; in fact, as many as 50 per cent of the Chinese rely on IUDs and sterilization is the second most widely used form of contraceptive method  [29]  . Partly because of these methods, it became possible for China to control its people. Again, the motive of preventing overpopulation is not a bad thing. In fact, it would be helpful to the government so that it could rule the country better. However, is this inhumane policy the only option that they had? Is it really success that they are achieving? Would they call this successful when they know that there are innocent babies killed along the way? The Chinese may have controlled the growth of their population but they are also encountering problems as they go along with their one-child policy. This policy has prevented around 4oo million births, according to Chinese officials  [30]  . Because there are fewer children that are born, there is an expanding population of the elderly. This is a problem because there would be less number of young laborers in the future when the elderly die  [31]  . Another problem is the ratio of men and women because men have been outnumbering women already by about 60 million. This imbalance between men and women would make it difficult for the former to look for wives; therefore they can result to human trafficking of women and children  [32]  . The policy is even crueler because of the inequality between men and women. The government has been addressing this issue saying that men and women must be equal at all costs and that this equality has to be promoted through media. People who commit infanticide, those who neglect or abandon their children or any act that would harm people especially female babies must be punished  [33]  . If the government really means this, then they could already stop with the payment of fines for having more than one child and just have a law against female infanticide, or better yet just abolish the policy. Unfortunately, the Chinese will still be continuing this policy in the coming decades to control the population growth in their country  [34]  . According to the official and minister of the National Population and Family Planning Commission, Zhang Weiqing, China will not make any changes for about another decade because it has been effective in controlling their population growth. Since Chinas population is growing by 17 million per year (according to China Daily as of 2008), abandoning the policy would have major fluctuations in population growth. Officials said that the one-child policy was the only choice that was available and realistic at the time of the construction of the policy, but they are now considering amendments to it, but abolishing it would cause many problems  [35]  . The Philippines is also experiencing an event that is quite similar to the policy that China has implemented on its country for a long time. There may be many people in the Philippines, but they are still able to live their lives normally because the resources are sustaining them. There would be no poor people if only there was equal distribution of resources to all the Filipino people. The church also claims that poverty is not because of overpopulation but is due to the irresponsible and corrupt government that the country has  [36]  , but what exactly is overpopulation? As defined by Merriam Webster Dictionary, overpopulation is the condition of having a population so dense as to cause environmental deterioration, an impaired quality of life, or a population crash  [37]  . The option that the lawmakers are considering is the Reproductive Health Bill that promotes information on and access to both natural and modern family planning methods, which are medically safe and legally permissible  [38]  . The difference of this from Chinas one-child policy is the variation of the Filipino and Chinese mentality; that the former does not favor any gender because Southeast Asian countries tolerate both genders. The cause is the same-which is to control population growth, but the motive is different because while China intends to just control their population, the Philippines aims to eliminate poverty by controlling the population growth. The cause may be reasonable but some parts of the bill are disadvantageous to the lives of the Filipinos, especially the Filipino women. Some institutions are supporting the RH Bill like the National Council of Churches in the Philippines or NCCP, saying that the Reproductive Health Bill does not necessarily promote anything illegal such as abortion  [39]  . However in the bill, it is said that women with post-abortion concerns will not be treated differently  [40]  . Does this mean that the government will still tolerate abortion even if they mentioned in the bill that abortion is illegal? Is what the NCCP saying about the bill not promoting abortion true? Another is the mandatory sex education for elementary students  [41]  . Some parents have a difficult time explaining to their children about how they came to life or even talk about sex with them. Usually parents would wait for the right time to educate them about these things so that the child would understand better. If the law requires mandatory sex education, then these children will be more curious and try to experiment things and be exposed at a very young age. Just like Chinas one-child policy, the RH Bill may have a good purpose but its execution and some of the policies in it are not beneficial. The bill promotes responsible parenthood  [42]  but does this responsibility involve the choice between having the baby and having the baby aborted? If there is the belief that the Philippines is overpopulated, then why not use this to our advantage? Why not use the money for creating jobs instead of spending so much on contraceptives (or letting the corrupt officials keep the money) that will not bring any benefit to a persons life? Our religion is also different from the Chinese. Filipinos do not see their children as economic liabilities because Filipinos are more emotionally attached to their children. The punishments in case of non-compliance stated in this bill will also have a great impact in the lives of the Filipinos who are compelled to comply with the provisions  [43]  . Filipinos must be alarmed that there is so much poor people because the population is rapidly increasing that is why they are assuming that the country is becoming overpopulated and we need to solve this problem. However, the Philippines does not need the RH Bill because the country is not overpopulated. There is the assumption that poverty and overpopulation are connected, and by controlling the population, poverty will be reduced. According to Simon Kuznets, a Noble Prize Winner and author of Population and Capital Growth, there is no clear connection between overpopulation and economic development  [44]  . Places such as Singapore, Hong Kong, and Taiwan are overpopulated but still flourish. The population density of Taiwan is 1,460 per square mile but CIAs World Factbook 1999 stated that Taiwans per capita gross domestic product is $16,500  [45]   What the Filipinos need is a better and more capable government instead of implementing an unnecessary law. As for China, they are also starting to question their own policy  [46]  and because they are already having doubts, then it is best that they reconsider executing it for another decade. By doing this, China would cease to harm innocent human beings and prevent the Philippines from following the footsteps of China in putting something unethical into practice.

Applications of virtual simulation and their impact in education and training Essay

By replicating experiences, simulations hold great potential for educating people or training professionals for almost any task. Research shows more learning is acquired through virtual reality than through reading or lectures. Different from other visual technologies such as film, television and photography, virtual simulation is very effective in education and training because it can provide interactive experience with theories and concepts. Students learn while they are situated in the context where what they learn is to be applied. They get immediate feedback as they explore their understanding of the material (Hitlab). Virtual reality transports learners and lets them explore places they are not able to visit or experience in the real world and could also allow them to visit different places in different time periods that they could not experience in one lifetime. Indeed, virtual reality evokes many possibilities for education and training across a whole range of disciplines. Despite prohibitive costs, more and more educational institutions are exploring simulation technologies as teaching aids and research tools (Byrne, 1993). However, the benefits far outweigh the high costs of simulation technologies. For example, virtual simulation could be used to avoid the physical, safety, and cost constraints that limit schools in the types of environments they can provide for learning-by-doing. To expose them to situated learning, Nuclear Engineering students could learn more about the nuclear reactor by studying simulated models with HMD and 3D gloves instead of a real nuclear reactor. Virtual reality technology facilitates constructivist learning activities and also supports different types of learners such as those who are visually oriented. Virtual simulation could also solve the limitations of distance learning in science and engineering education by providing virtual laboratories in place of hands-on experiments. Physical phenomena that are not easily perceived or measured in usual experiments can be presented in a virtual world and can be viewed in many different perspectives in a VR laboratory. Furthermore, virtual simulation could also address the problems of high costs and hazards of complicated experiments (Kim, et al. , 2001). Figure 2. Simulation offers interactive demonstration of the AC and DC generators (from Kim, et al. , 2001) Simulations in education focus on specific lessons or tasks and allow the replication of abstract concepts and ideas. Simulation techniques are used to create a microworld that simulates an abstract concept and allows the learner to experiment or construct objects to facilitate understanding. A good example of a microworld is the Global Challenge Award online STEM learning web site that teaches science concepts related to global warming and the future of energy. Virtual simulation could also be used, for example, by an ecology to study hydrology and population growth and decay for wildlife species in a given geographic region. An astronomer could also simulate the collision of galaxies and the formation of dark matter. Virtual simulation allows professionals to explore their fields without having to run extensive and costly physical, on site, experiments (Fishwick, 1995). The use of simulation environments has been found to be very effective educational tools because they support self-driven learning (Trindade et al. , 2002). Figure 3. Interactive demonstration of different types of waves (from Kim, et al. , 2001) Multisensory immersion would be the best way for science students to learn complex scientific concepts. In a study of virtual reality physics simulation (VRPS) conducted by Kim, et al. (2001), it was found out that students who were exposed to VRPS programs that provide rich interactive learning environments showed higher academic achievement and felt more satisfaction and interest in the learning process. In another study done by Jensen, et al. (2004), it was shown that 3D visualizations can improve learner satisfaction due to the vivid presentation, and at least maintain learning efficacy.

Needs Theories

1. INTRODUCTION Motivation is an important element in organizational learning due to its ability to enable employees to function effectively. There are several theories of motivation which can be useful to managers in motivating employees of organizations. You may ask yourself what motivation is. Well, motivation is that drive you have within you to get something done, what drives you to work as much as you do, for example, a student will want an A in a test, he will be motivated to study hard and achieve that A.It is the process of stimulating people to actions to accomplish the goals. Motivation stems from psychological factors within the person, but can also be induced by factors in the workplace. In human resource management it is essential to know how workers inputs via their task inputs and inputs via superiors can be conductive to worker effectiveness. Motivation is a process that involves the purposiveness of behaviour. Factors that have been shown by research include externa l and internal activators.In this assignment we will outline important motivation theories and how they are used in the workplace. Motivation theories seek to 2. MASLOWS HIERACHY OF NEEDS Peoples’ needs are arranged according to its importance of human survival. Human needs may be placed in a hierarchy where the lowest level contains the most basic needs, which must be satisfied before the higher order needs emerge and become motivators of behaviour. The needs of the hierarchy are as follows, psychological needs, safety needs, social needs, ego/esteem needs and self-actualization needs.Psychological needs: These are the basic needs for a human which are essential for a human beings biological functioning and survival. Examples would be food, water and warmth. Employees who are adequately paid can provide for these needs. Safety needs: As soon as the psychological needs are satisfied, another level of needs emerge and the importance of the previous level of needs disappear. In this level a person looks for security, stability and a safe environment. Many employees’ most important need is job security; other security factors include increases in salary and benefits.Social needs: Once a person feels secure in their surroundings and are in control of possible threats, social needs are activated. These include the need for love, acceptance, friendship and a sense of belonging. At this level, employees desire social relationships inside and outside the organization. Peer group acceptance within the workplace is often an important psychological need for employees. Ego/esteem needs: These needs may be divided into two groups namely, self- respect and self-esteem, the respect and approval of others.Once employees form friendships the need for self-esteem becomes priority. Needs, such as self-confidence, independence, recognition, appreciation and achievement all fall under this level. Organizational factors such as job title, status items within the organ ization, such as parking spaces or office size and level of responsibility become important to the employee. Self- actualization: If all the above mentioned needs are largely satisfied, people than spend their time searching for opportunities to apply their skills to the best of their ability.Maslow describes the needs as the desire to become more and more what one is and to become everything one is capable of becoming. Self-actualization is the uninhibited expression of your true self and your talents. Employees seek challenging and creative jobs to achieve self-actualization. This theory has many implications for individual performance, the most common strategy being motivating people in terms of service benefits and job security. The work people do and the way the work environment is designed, increases interaction between employees which helps satisfy social needs.However, disadvantages pertaining to this may result in excessive socialization and may have a negative effect on th e employees work output (NEL P. S et al,2004). If a person’s work is directly associated with need satisfaction, then that person becomes self-regulating, making the roles of external incentives become less significant as motivators. As one level of need is met, a person moves onto the next level of need as a source of motivation. Hence, people progress up the hierachy as they successively gratify each level if need(Nelson Q, 2011) (http://upload. ikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs. png) 3. HERTZBURGS TWO FACTOR THEORY Herzberg's Two Factor Theory is a â€Å"content theory† of motivation† (the other main one is Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs). Herzberg analysed the job attitudes of 200 accountants and engineers who were asked to recall when they had felt positive or negative at work and the reasons why. From this research, Herzberg suggested a two-step approach to understanding employee motivation and satisfaction, these were hygiene factors and motivator factors. Hygiene Factors:Hygiene factors are based on the need to for a business to avoid dissatisfaction at work. If these factors are considered inadequate by employees, then they can cause dissatisfaction with work. Hygiene factors include: * Company policy and administration * Wages, salaries and other financial remuneration * Quality of supervision * Quality of inter-personal relations * Working conditions * Feelings of job security Motivator Factors: Motivator factors are based on an individual's need for personal growth. When they exist, motivator factors actively create job satisfaction.If they are effective, then they can motivate an individual to achieve above-average performance and effort. Motivator factors include: * Status * Opportunity for advancement * Gaining recognition * Responsibility * Challenging / stimulating work * Sense of personal achievement & personal growth in a job There is some similarity between Herzberg's and Maslow's models. Th ey both suggest that needs have to be satisfied for the employee to be motivated. However, Herzberg argues that only the higher levels of the Maslow Hierarchy (e. g. elf-actualisation, esteem needs) act as a motivator. The remaining needs can only cause dissatisfaction if not addressed. Applying Hertzberg's model to de-motivated workers These few examples indicate de-motivated employees in the workplace: * Low productivity * Poor production or service quality * Strikes / industrial disputes / breakdowns in employee communication and relationships * Complaints about pay and working conditions According to Herzberg, management should focus on rearranging work so that motivator factors can take effect.He suggested three ways in which this could be done: * Job enlargement: It is a human resource practice used to motivate employees in a particular position. A job is enlarged horizontally through the addition of new responsibilities and diverse duties. * Job rotation: A system of working in which employees work in a range of jobs in a company so that they have different types of work to do and understand the organization better, it can help employers by keeping employees from getting bored and looking for another job. Job enrichment: Motivating employees through expanding job responsibilities and giving increased control over the total production process. Employees normally receiving training and additional support as well as increased input in procuderes. 4. VROOMS EXPECTANCY MOTIVATION THEORY Whereas Maslow and Herzberg look at the relationship between internal needs and the resulting effort expended to fulfil them, Vroom's expectancy theory separates effort (which arises from motivation), performance, and outcomes.Vroom's expectancy theory assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and to minimize pain. Vroom realized that an employee's performance is based on individual factors such as persona lity, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities. He stated that effort, performance and motivation are linked in a person's motivation. He uses the variables Expectancy, Instrumentality and Valence to account for this. Expectancy is the belief that increased effort will lead to increased performance i. e. f I work harder then this will be better. This is affected by such things as: 1. Having the right resources available (e. g. raw materials, time) 2. Having the right skills to do the job 3. Having the necessary support to get the job done (e. g. supervisor support, or correct information on the job) Instrumentality is the belief that if you perform well that a valued outcome will be received. The degree to which a first level outcome will lead to the second level outcome. i. e. if I do a good job, there is something in it for me. This is affected by such things as: 1.Clear understanding of the relationship between performance and outcomes – e. g. the rules of the reward â €˜game' 2. Trust in the people who will take the decisions on who gets what outcome 3. Transparency of the process that decides who gets what outcome Valence is the importance that the individual places upon the expected outcome. For the valence to be positive, the person must prefer attaining the outcome to not attaining it. For example, if someone is mainly motivated by money, he or she might not value offers of additional time off.The theory has three key elements or concepts that it uses: 1. Performance-outcome expectancy: This means that the individual belives that every behaviour is connected to an outcome, and different levels of that behaviour can be connected to different levels of the outcome. 2. Value: With regard to that, the attractiveness of that outcome depends on the individual, for one, the outcome may be a highly values reward whereas for another, it could be perceived as a punishment. 3. Effort-Performance expectancy: Lastly, individuals evealuate the effort-pe rformance expectancy relationship.In essence, the employee asks himself whether he will be able to perform a specific task and translates those perceptions to probabilies of success. He or she then chooses the behaviours' that have the highest likelihood of success. Crucially, Vroom's expectancy theory works on perceptions, so even if an employer thinks they have provided everything appropriate for motivation, and even if this works with most people in that organisation, it doesn't mean that someone won't perceive that it doesn't work for them. It could equally apply to any situation where someone does something because they expect a certain outcome.For example, one recycles paper because they think it's important to conserve resources and take a stand on environmental issues (valence); they think that the more effort they put into recycling the more paper they will recycle (expectancy); and they think that the more paper they recycle then less resources will be used (instrumentalit y). Thus, Vroom's expectancy theory of motivation is not about self-interest in rewards but about the associations people make towards expected outcomes and the contribution they feel they can make towards those outcomes. 5. ADAMS EQUITY THEORYJohn Stacey Adams, a workplace and behavioural psychologist, put forward his Equity Theory on job motivation in 1963. There are similarities with interpretation of previous simpler theories of Maslow, Herzberg and other pioneers of workplace psychology, in that the theory acknowledges that subtle and variable factors affect each individual's assessment and perception of their relationship with their work, and thereby their employer. One of the most important issues in motivation is how people view their contributions to the organization and what they get from it.Ideally, they will view their relationship with the employer as a well-balanced, mutually beneficial exchange. As peope work, they realize their consequences of their actions, develop beliefs about outcomes and asses how fairly the organization treats them(Snell A. S. & Batemen T. S 1999, Management:Building Competetive Advantage). The Adams' Equity Theory model therefore extends beyond the individual self, and incorporates influence and comparison of other people's situations – for example colleagues and friends – in forming a comparative view and awareness of Equity, which commonly manifests as a sense of what is fair.When people feel fairly or advantageously treated they are more likely to be motivated, when they feel unfairly treated they are highly prone to feelings of disaffection and demotivation. The way that people measure this sense of fairness is at the heart of Equity Theory. Equity, and thereby the motivational situation we might seek to assess using the model, is not dependent on the extent to which a person believes reward exceeds effort, nor even necessarily on the belief that reward exceeds effort at all.Rather, Equity, and the sens e of fairness which commonly underpins motivation, is dependent on the comparison a person makes between his or here reward/investment ratio with the ratio enjoyed (or suffered) by others considered to be in a similar situation. Equity Theory reminds us that people see themselves and crucially the way they are treated in terms of their surrounding environment, team, system, etc – not in isolation – and so they must be managed and treated accordingly.Some people reduce effort and application and become inwardly disgruntled, or outwardly difficult, recalcitrant or even disruptive. Other people seek to improve the outputs by making claims or demands for more reward, or seeking an alternative job. 6. ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY A theory of human needs more advanced than Maslow’s theory is Alderfers ERG theory, meaning that Maslows theory has general applicability whereas Adelfer aims his theory at understanding peoples needs at work.Aldelfers theory builds on some of Maslows thinking but reduces the number of universal needs from five to three and is more flexible in terms of movememy in levels. Like Maslow, Alderfer also believes that needs can be arranged in a heirachy. The ERG theory infers that there are three sets of needs: * Extintence needs are all material and psychological desires. * Relatedness needs involve relationships with other people and are satisfied through the process of mutually sharing thoughts and feelings. Growth needs motivate people to productivity or creatively change themselves or their environment. ERG theory proposes that several needs can be operating at once, whereas Maslow assumes that lower-level needs must be satisfied begore a higher-level need is a motivator. Alderfer lifts this restiction. Accordning to the ERG theory, a higher-level need can be a motivator even if a lower-level need is not fully satisfied, hence several needs can be operating at once. Maslow would say that self-actualization is important to people only after other sets of needs are satisfied.Aldelfer maintains that people can be motivated to satisfy both existence and growth needs at the same time. Alderfer agrees that as lower level needs are satisfied, a worker becomes motivated to satisfy higher-level needs, but he breaks down with Maslow on the consequences of need-frustration. Maslow says that once a lower-level need is satisfied, it is no longer a source of motivation, whereas Alderfer suggests that when an individual is motivated to satisfy a higher-level need but has difficulty doing so, the motivation to satisfy lower-level needs becomes higher.To see how this works, lets look at a middle manager in a manufacturing firm whose relatedness needs(lower-lvel needs) are satidfied. The manager is currently motivated to try and satisfy her growth needs but finds this difficult to do so as she has been in the same position for the past five years. She is extremely skilled and knowlegable about the job and the fact that she has too much work and responsibiliies already leave her no time to pursue anything new or exciting. Essentially, the managers motivation to satisfy her growth needs are being frustrated because of the nature of her job.Alderfer postulates that this frustration will increase the managers motivation to satsfy a lower-levelneed such as relatedness. As a result of this motivation, the manager becomes more concerned about interpersonal relations at work and continually seeks honest feedback from her colleagues. Both Maslows and Alderfers theories have practical value in that they remind managers the type of reinforcers or rewards that can be used to motivate people. (http://www. envisionsoftware. com/es_img/Alderfer_ERG_Theory. gif) 7. McCLELLANDS NEEDS THEORY The theory was developed by David McClelland and his associates.It focuses on three needs, achievement, power and affiliation. Achievement is characterized by a strong orientation towards accomplishment and an obession wit h success and goal attainment. It is a drive to excel and to achieve set standards. Challening work motivates them and they take personal responsibility for success or failure. They like to set goals that require stretching themselves a little and have a drive to succeed, they strive for achievement rather than rewards. They wish to do something better or more efficiently than it has been done before.The people with this need look for situations where they can attain peronal responsibility for finding solutions to problems , in which they can get quick feedback of their performance so they can determine whether they are improving or not. This helps them to set their goals. The need for power is a desire to influence or contol other people. This need can be a negetive force which is termed personalizes power, if its expressed through aggressive minipulation and exploiting others, these people want power only to achieve their own personal goals.However the need for power can also be s een in a positive manner which is called socialized power because it can be be conducted towards the constructive improvement of organizations ans societies. It is basically the need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise. Individuals with a high need of power prefer to be placed into competitive and status-orientated situations and tend to be more concerned with prestige than with effective performance. Affiliation reflects a strong desire to be liked by other people such as your colleagues nd anoyone you may be working with. Individuals who have a high level of this need are more orientated towards getting along with others and may be less concerned with performing at high levels. These types of individuals are usually very social and friendly. The need for affliation is not important for management and leadership success as one would find it difficult to make tough but necessary decisions which will make some people unhappy. They prefer cooperat ive situations rather than competitive ones and desire relationships that involve a high degree of mutual understanding. . McGREGORS THEORY OF X AND Y Douglas McGreggors theory of X and Y is a management based style of theory that tries to expalin different management styles and leadership behaviour within the workplace. McGreggor proposed that the organizations leaders and the organization as a whole has different views on the skills and motivation of the employees of the organization. These potential views can be described as Theory X and Theory Y. Theory X With Theory X assumptions, management's role is to coerce and control employees. People have an inherent dislike for work and will avoid it whenever possible. * People must be coerced, controlled, directed, or threatened with punishment in order to get them to achieve the organizational objectives. * People prefer to be directed, do not want responsibility, and have little or no ambition. * People seek security above all else. Theory Y With Theory Y assumptions, management's role is to develop the potential in employees and help them to release that potential towards common goals. * Work is as natural as play and rest. People will exercise self-direction if they are committed to the objectives (they are NOT lazy). * Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievement. * People learn to accept and seek responsibility. * Creativity, ingenuity, and imagination are widely distributed among the population. People are capable of using these abilities to solve an organizational problem. * People have potential. McGreggor did not see these theories as mutually exclusive and believed that managers could use these theories simultaneously.He compared his theory with Maslow’s where he put Maslow's higher needs and Theory X together and lower needs to Theory X. This proposes that people who are seeking higher needs, such as self-actualization, are motivated by a Theory Y lead er, whereas people who don’t have work-related needs are motivated by Theory X leadership style. 9. CONCLUSION In conclusion, It is therefore essential for organizations to look for and employ people who â€Å"fit† into the values of the organization and are able to function according to organizational values.Organizations must also have suitable managers who have the ability to coach and mentor their employees to deliver optimally. Enhanced leadership enables managers to motivate their employees to produce the best possible skills and practices in human resources. Research confirms the importance of motivation in leading employees and influencing them to stimulate and energize people so that they â€Å"work towards organizational goals†. Researchers have placed great importance on the responsibility of managers â€Å"to create a proper climate in which employees can develop to their fullest potential†.All these motivational theories have played a pivotal role in helping managers achieve the best results, and also helped undestand how important motivation is. Motivation thoeries give a broader explanation about how people perceive their work and lives, and how they use these insights to motivate themselves and grow, as people as well as in their jobs. 10. LIST OF REFERENCES NELSON, Q. (2011), Principles of Organizational Behaviour, 7th Edition, Place: South-Western Cengage Learning LUTHANS, F. (1998), Organizational Behaviour, 8th Edition. Place: McGraw-Hill Irwin. GEORGE, J.M and JONES, G. R. (2002), Organizational Behaviour, 3rd Edition, Place:Prentice Hall. MULLENS, L. J( 2010),Management and Organizational Behaviour, 9th Edition. Place: Prentice Hall. ANTHONY, W. P et al(1999), Human Resource Management: A strategic approach, 3rd Edition, Place: Hartcourt College Publishers. BERGH,Z and THERON,A. (2006). Psychology in the work context, 3rd Edition. Place: Prentice Hall. ROBBINS, S. P. (2003). Organizational Behaviour, 10th Editi on. Place: Prentice Hall. ROSENFELD,R. H and WILSON,D. C(2004). Managing Organizations, 2nd Edition. Place: Oxford.

About Presidential Recess Appointments

Often a politically controversial move, the â€Å"recess appointment† is a method by which the President of the United States can legally appoint new senior federal officials, like Cabinet secretaries, without the constitutionally-required approval of the Senate. The person appointed by the president assumes his or her appointed position without the approval of the Senate. The appointee must be approved by the Senate by the end of the next session of Congress, or when the position becomes vacant again. The power to make recess appointments is granted to the president by Article II, Section, 2, Clause 3  of the U.S. Constitution, which states: The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall expire at the End of their next Session. Believing it would help prevent â€Å"governmental paralysis,† the delegates to the 1787 Constitutional Convention adopted the Recess Appointments Clause unanimously and without debate. Since early sessions of Congress lasted only three to six months, Senators would scatter throughout the country during the six-to-nine-month recesses to take care of their farms or businesses. During these extended periods, during which Senators were not available to provide their advice and consent, top presidentially-appointed positions often fell and remained open as when officeholders resigned or died. Thus, the Framers intended that the Recess Appointments Clause would function as a â€Å"supplement† to the hotly debated presidential appointment power, and was necessary so that the Senate need not, as Alexander Hamilton wrote in The Federalist No. 67, â€Å"be continually in session for the appointment of officers.† Similar to the general appointment power provided in Article II, Section 2, Clause 2, of the Constitution, the recess appointment power applies to the appointment of â€Å"Officers of the United States.† By far, the most controversial recess appointees have been federal judges because judges not confirmed by the Senate do not get the guaranteed life tenure and salary required by Article III.  To date, more than 300 federal judges have received recess appointments, including Supreme Court Justices William J. Brennan, Jr., Potter Stewart, and Earl Warren.   While the Constitution does not address the issue, the Supreme Court ruled in 2014 that the Senate must be in recess for at least three consecutive days before the president can make recess appointments. Often Considered a Subterfuge While the intent of the Founding Fathers in Article II, Section 2 was to grant the president the power to fill vacancies that actually occurred during a Senate recess, presidents have traditionally applied a much more liberal interpretation, using the clause as a means of bypassing Senate opposition to controversial nominees. Presidents often hope that opposition to their recess nominees will have lessened by the end of the next congressional session. However, recess appointments are more often looked on as a subterfuge and tend to harden the attitude of the opposition party, making final confirmation even more unlikely. Some Notable Recess Appointments President George W. Bush has placed several judges on U.S. courts of appeals via recess appointments when Senate Democrats filibustered their confirmation proceedings. In one controversial case, Judge Charles Pickering, appointed to the Fifth Circuit U.S. Court of Appeals, chose to withdraw his name from consideration for re-nomination when his recess appointment expired. President Bush also appointed Judge William H. Pryor, Jr. to the bench of the Eleventh Circuit Court during a recess, after the Senate repeatedly failed to vote on Pryors nomination. President Bill Clinton was harshly criticized for his recess appointment of Bill Lan Lee as assistant attorney general for civil rights when it became clear that Lees strong support of affirmative action would lead to Senate opposition. President John F. Kennedy appointed renowned jurist Thurgood Marshall to the Supreme Court during a Senate recess after Southern senators threatened to block his nomination. Marshall was later confirmed by the full Senate after the end of his replacement term. The Constitution does not specify a minimum length of time the Senate must be in recess before the president can enact a recess appointment. President Theodore Roosevelt was one of the most liberal of all recess appointees, making several appointments during Senate recesses lasting as little as one day. Using Pro Forma Sessions to Block Recess Appointments In attempts to prevent presidents from making recess appointments, Senators of the opposing political party often employ pro forma sessions of the Senate. While no real legislative activity takes place during pro forma sessions, they prevent the Senate from officially being adjourned, thus theoretically blocking the president from making recess appointments. But It Doesnt Always Work However, in 2012, four recess appointments to the influential National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) made by President Barak Obama during Congress’ annual winter break were ultimately allowed, despite a break-long series of pro forma sessions called by Senate Republicans. While they were stiffly challenged by Republicans, all four appointees were eventually confirmed by the Democrat-controlled Senate. As many other presidents have over the years, Obama argued that pro forma sessions cannot be used to quash the president’s â€Å"constitutional authority† to make appointments. On June 26, 2014, in a 9-0 ruling, the United States Supreme Court upheld the practice of using pro forma sessions to block the president from using the recess appointment authority. In its unanimous decision in NLRB v. Noel Canning, the Court ruled that President Obama had overstepped his executive authority in appointing members to the NLRB while the Senate was still formally in session. In the majority opinion, Justice Stephen Breyer held that the Constitution allows Congress itself to determine its sessions and recesses, writing decisively that â€Å"the Senate is in session when it says it is,† and that the president does not have the authority to dictate sessions of Congress and thus make recess appointments. However, the Court’s decision upheld the presidential power to make provisional recess appointments during breaks within a congressional session for vacancies that existed prior to the recess.